CHỮ NÔM or the Former Vietnamese Script and Its Past Contributions to Vietnamese Literature – Section 2
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Nguyễn Khắc-Kham*
… be continued for section 1:
The structure of Nôm script**
As far as can be judged from these master-pieces of Vietnamese literature in Chữ Nôm, this script is not so fanciful and irrational as some of its critics have claimed. In fact, it was governed by rather precise and even rigid rules.
In our previous study on Foreign borrowings in Vietnamese we have given some examples of its main patterns. We will take advantage of this opportunity to describe its structure as fully as we could with materials we have access to.
As rightly observed by Prof. Rokuro Kono, the Vietnamese Chữ Nôm shows striking similarities to the Japanese Kana and the Japanese Kokuji 國 字. Following are some examples given by him. In the Kojiki 古 事 記, the phonetic and semantic readings of Chinese characters which also are made use of in Chữ Nôm are both employed by its compiler Ono Yasumaro. Thus the phonetic representation is used in such proper names 須 佐 as for /susa /of , for /suga /of. This phonetic method is completely adopted in the famous song beginning with “yakumo tatu…” The phonetic representation is not a dominant current except in proper names and songs. Even in proper names the phonetic method is not always adopted 速 須 佐 之 男 命 (hayasusanowo) is represented by the semantic method except 須 賀 /susa/, which is also prevalent in such examples 須 賀 宮 as in (Asinaduti) 足 名 椎 (Inada-no Miyanusi) etc. Besides the two examples mentioned above, Prof. Rokuro Kono quoted also the instances 今 {ima, 初 {fazime, 時 {toki, 雲 {kumo, 歌 {uta, 神 {kami, 首 {kubi. The hui-i characters newly created are found both in Japan and Vietnam, e.g. , giời is created by compounding the character and. The characters invented in Japan, the so-called Kokuji (National character) e.g. (sasaki), (tauge), 杜 (mori) etc… are the developments of the hui-i characters in the same way as the Nôm character, giời.
Despite all these apparent similarities, in view of the differences between the Japanese and the Vietnamese languages as to their phonetic system and the historical background of the Chinese writing influences, the structure of Chữ Nôm preserved its distinctive originality, as clearly shown hereafter by its various formation patterns.
Chinese characters borrowed by Chữ Nôm to represent a single morphene in Vietnamese may be used singly or in combination.
I. A single Chinese character is used to represent
1) A Vietnamese morphene of Chinese origin, which has exactly the Sino-Vietnamese reading and the meaning of the corresponding Chinese character.
Ex.: + Chinese character 頭 đầu (head), 袄 áo (rob, tunic).
2) A Vietnamese morpheme of Chinese origin which has preserved the meaning of the corresponding Chinese character but whose Vietnamese reading has been slightly different from the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the corresponding Chinese character.
Ex.: + Chinese character 法, Sino-Vietnamese reading: pháp is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme phép (law, rule).
+ Chinese character 旗, Sino-Vietnamese reading kỳ is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme cờ (flag).
+ Chinese character 橋, Sino-Vietnamese reading: kiều is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme cầu (bridge).
3) A Vietnamese morphene probably of Chinese origin, whose meaning is the same as that of the corresponding Chinese character but whose reading compared to the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the Chinese character has been strongly altered.
Ex.: + Chinese character 捲, Sino-Vietnamese reading: quyển is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme cuốn (to roll).
+ Chinese character 本, Sino-Vietnamese reading bản, bổn is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme vốn (capital, funds).
4) A Vietnamese morpheme of the same meaning as the corresponding Chinese character but whose reading is quite different from the Sino-Vietnamese reading of it.
Ex.: + Chinese character 役, Sino-Vietnamese reading: dịch, is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme việc (work, job, occupation).
5) A Vietnamese morpheme whose reading is the same as of similar to the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the corresponding Chinese character but whose meaning is completely different.
Ex.: + Chinese character 戈, Sino-Vietnamese reading: qua (lance, spear) is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme qua (to pass by).
+ Chinese character 没, Sino-Vietnamese reading: một (to disappear under water, to be submerged) is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme một (one).
In these two examples, the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the Chinese character is exactly the same as the reading of the Vietnamese morpheme represented.
Ex.: + Chinese character 朱 , Sino-Vietnamese reading chu (red, vermilion) is used to represent the Vietnamese morpheme cho (to give).
+ Chinese character 箕, Sino-Vietnamese reading ky or cơ (crible, sieve) is used to represent Vietnamese morpheme kia (over there, that).
In the last two examples, the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the Chinese character is almost similar to the reading of the Vietnamese morpheme represented.
Such Chữ Nôm as included in the second, third, fourth and fifth categories above by Dương Quảng Hàm17 were considered by Hồ Ngọc Cẩn18 as belonging to the same category of Chữ Nôm represented by Chinese characters whose Sino-Vietnamese reading offers sound similarities with their Vietnamese reading.
There are, according to the latter, several cases of these sound similarities as follows:
1) Sound similarities between the Sino-Vietnamese reading of a Chinese character and the reading of one or several Vietnamese morpheme except for the initial consonant.
Ex.: + Chinese character 板, Sino-Vietnamese reading: bản may represent phản in Nôm.
2) Sound similarities only as the final syllable or only as the vowel or the vowel cluster before the final consonant.
Ex.: + Chinese character 合, may be read hợp, hạp, hiệp or hộp.
3) Sometimes, the Sino-Vietnamese reading of the Chinese character used to represent a Vietnamese morpheme differs from the latter both by the initial consonant and the final syllable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 職, Sino-Vietnamese: chức may also represent, in Nôm, chắc or giấc.
4) Sound similarities considered as such despite the difference of tones.
Ex.: + Chinese character 吟, Sino-Vietnamese ngâm is also used to represent, in Nôm, ngấm, ngẫm or ngậm.
To understand the above and other similar examples of Chữ Nôm, we should know which initial consonants, which vowels or vowel clusters, which final syllables in the Sino-Vietnamese word corresponding to a Chinese character and in the Vietnamese morpheme to be represented in Nôm used to be considered as interchangeable.
A) Initial consonants considered as interchangeable for representation in Nôm
a) Initial consonants b-, ph-, v–
Ex.: + Chinese character 卜, Sino-Vietnamese reading: bốc which represents in Nôm such Vietnamese morphemes as bốc and bói may also represent vốc;
+ Chinese character 板, Sino-Vietnamese reading: bản may also represent in Nôm phản, bản or ván.
b) Initial consonants c-, k-, gh-, qu–
Initial consonants c-, k-, gh-, qu– used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 及, Sino-Vietnamese reading cập may also represent, in Nôm, cấp, gặp or kịp;
+ Chinese character 群, Sino-Vietnamese reading: quần, may aslo represent còn in Nôm.
c) Initial consonants d-, t-, v–
Initial consonants d-, t-, v– used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 性, Sino-Vietnamese reading: tính or tánh may also represent dính in Nôm;
+ Chinese character 停, Sino-Vietnamese reading: đình may also represent, in Nôm, dành or đành.
d) Initial consonants ch-, gi– and less frequently tr-, x–
Initial consonants ch-, gi– and less frequently tr-, x– used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 執, Sino-Vietnamese reading: chấp may also represent, in Nôm, chụp, giúp, xúp, or xọp.
e) Initial consonants l-, r-, tr–
Initial consonants l-, r-, tr– used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 律, Sino-Vietnamese reading: luật may also represent, in Nôm, lọt, luột, lót, rọt or trót.
B) Syllables considered as interchangeable for representation in Chữ nôm
a) ác, ắc, ấc, ức, ước
ác, ắc, ấc, ức, ước used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 北, Sino-Vietnamese reading: bắc may also represent, in Nôm, bấc, bực or bước.
b) ach, ếch, iếc, ích
ach, ếch, iếc, ích used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 役, Sino-Vietnamese reading: dịch may also represent việc in Nôm;
+ Chinese character 赤, Sino-Vietnamese reading: xích, may also represent, in Nôm, xếch or xệch.
c) ai, ay, ây, oai, oay, uây, oi, ôi, ơi, uôi, ươi, ui, ưi, e, ê, i, ia and sometimes ưa
ai, ay, ây, oai, oay, uây, oi, ôi, ơi, uôi, ươi, ui, ưi, e, ê, i, ia and sometimes ưa are interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 支, Sino-Vietnamese reading: chi may also represent chia in Nôm;
+ Chinese character 皮, Sino-Vietnamese reading: bì may also represent, in Nôm, bề or vừa.
d) am, ăm, âm, em, êm, im, iêm, om, ôm, ơm, um, ươm
am, ăm, âm, em, êm, im, iêm, om, ôm, ơm, um, ươm used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 冘, Sino-Vietnamese reading: đam may also represent, in Nôm, đâm, đem or đơm.
e) an, ăn, ân, en, ên, iên, uyên, in, uân, on, ôn, ươn, ơn, un, ưn, uôn
an, ăn, ân, en, ên, iên, uyên, in, uân, on, ôn, ươn, ơn, un, ưn, uôn used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 鄰, Sino-Vietnamese reading: lân was also used to represent lăn in Nôm.19
f) ăng, âng, ung, ưng, ương
ăng, âng, ung, ưng, ương used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 登, Sino-Vietnamese reading: đăng was also used to represent, in Nôm, dâng or chừng.
g) ong, ông, ung and sometimes ưng
ong, ông, ưng and sometimes ưng were interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 用, Sino-Vietnamese reading: dụng was also used to represent, in Nôm, dòng, dùng.
h) anh, ênh, inh, iêng, ang, ưng
anh, ênh, inh, iêng, ang, ưng used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 生, Sino-Vietnamese reading: sinh or sanh was also used to represent siêng in Nôm.
i) ao, au, âu, o, ô, ơ, u, ư, ưa, ưu
ao, au, âu, o, ô, ơ, u, ư, ưa, ưu used to be interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 牢, Sino-Vietnamese reading: lao was also used as hsiai-shêng to represent lao, lau, trao or trau.
j) ap, ăp, âp, ep, êp, iêp, ip, op, ôp, ơp, up, ưp, ươp
ap, ăp, âp, ep, êp, iêp, ip, op, ôp, ơp, up, ưp, ươp were interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 及, Sino-Vietnamese reading: cập was also used to represent, in Nôm, gặp, gấp or kịp.
k) at, ăt, ât, uất, ot, ôt, ơt, ut, ưt, ươt, uôt, it
at, ăt, ât, uất, ot, ôt, ơt, ut, ưt, ươt, uôt, it were interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 乙, Sino-Vietnamese reading: ât was also used to represent in Nôm, ắt, út or it.
l) et, êt, iêt, it
et, êt, iêt, it were interchangeable.
Ex.: + Chinese character 歇, Sino-Vietnamese reading: hiết was also used to represent in Nôm hết or hít.
N.B.: From the above examples, we see that several Chữ Nôm were made up by changing not only initial consonants, but also final syllables and sometimes even tones.
Ex.: + 及 could be read cập, gặp, kịp or kíp; could be read ngâm, ngắm or gẫm.
… continue in section 3 …
SEE MORE:
◊ CHỮ NÔM or the Former Vietnamese Script and Its Past Contributions to Vietnamese Literature – Section 3.
◊ CHỮ NÔM or the Former Vietnamese Script and Its Past Contributions to Vietnamese Literature – Section 1.
NOTES:
15 Nguyễn Khắc-Kham, “Foreign borrowings in Vietnamese”, Area and Culture Studies, No 19, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1969 pp. 142-175.
16 Kono Rokuro, “The Chinese writing and its influence on the Scripts of the Neighbouring Peoples with special reference to Korea and Japan”, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Oriental Library) No 27. The Toyo Bunko, Tokyo, 1969. pp. 117-123., 一要解國語 [Nhất yếu giải quốc ngữ], 國文法辭典, 文學博士湯氵尺幸吉郎監介參, 寺瀨光男編, 東京堂出版, page 66.
17 Dương Quảng Hàm, “Le chữ nôm ou écriture démotique. Son importance dans l’étude de l’ancienne littérature Annamite”, Bulletin de l’Instruction Publique de l’Indochine No 7, Mars 1942. N.B. Among the examples of this fourth category of chữ nôm, Dương Quảng Hàm quoted also the grapheme, Sino-Vietnamese reading: vị (savor, taste) as being used to transcribe the Vietnamese morpheme mùi. However, this writer thinks that the Chinese character might have been read mùi by the Vietnamese as early as the beginning of the Chinese T’ang dynasty in imitation of the Chinese reading. (cf. H. Maspero, “Quelques mots Annamites d’origine Chinoise” B.E.F.E.O, no 3, 1916, pp. 35-39). Accordingly it might have been a chữ Nôm whose date was prior to the eighth century.
18 R.P. Hồ Ngọc Cẩn, Văn chương An Nam, Littérature Annamite, Imprimerie de la Société des Missions Etrangères, Hong Kong, 1933. pp. 162-166.
19 This example is given by 竃 this writer instead of which, according to Hồ Ngọc Cẩn, was used to represnt in nôm răn, rân or rên.
BAN TU THƯ
03 /2020
NOTES:
** The title of sections, bold textes and featured sepia image has been set by Ban Tu Thu – thanhdiavietnamhoc.com
◊ Source: Institute of Sino-Nom studies.